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Their contact information is given under Heading 9. Contact information. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with a group of investors, formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. In the beginning, stainless steel was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in , one trade journal called it "unstainable steel".
Major technological advances in the s and s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost:. There are five main families, which are primarily classified by their crystalline structure : austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening. Austenitic stainless steel [30] [31] is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production see production figures below.
Austenitic stainless steels can be further subdivided into two sub-groups, series and series:. Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and contain between This microstructure is present at all temperatures due to the chromium addition, so they are not hardenable by heat treatment.
They cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic. Additions of niobium Nb , titanium Ti , and zirconium Zr to Type allow good weldability see welding section below.
Due to the near-absence of nickel, they are cheaper than austenitic steels and are present in many products, which include:. Martensitic stainless steels offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, and creep -resistant steels.
They are magnetic, and not as corrosion-resistant as ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their low chromium content. They fall into four categories with some overlap : [42].
The heat treatment typically involves three steps: [44]. Replacing some carbon in martensitic stainless steels by nitrogen is a recent development.
Steel containing up to 0. As PESR is expensive, lower but significant nitrogen contents have been achieved using the standard argon oxygen decarburization AOD process.
Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the ideal ratio being a mix, though commercial alloys may have ratios of Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the yield strength of austenitic stainless steel. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steel Types and Duplex grades are usually divided into three sub-groups based on their corrosion resistance: lean duplex, standard duplex, and super duplex.
The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. The pulp and paper industry was one of the first to extensively use duplex stainless steel. Today, the oil and gas industry is the largest user and has pushed for more corrosion resistant grades, leading to the development of super duplex and hyper duplex grades.
More recently, the less expensive and slightly less corrosion-resistant lean duplex has been developed, chiefly for structural applications in building and construction concrete reinforcing bars, plates for bridges, coastal works and in the water industry. Precipitation hardening stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than other martensitic grades.
There are three types of precipitation hardening stainless steels: [50]. This outstanding strength level is used in high-tech applications such as aerospace usually after remelting to eliminate non-metallic inclusions, which increases fatigue life. Another major advantage of this steel is that aging, unlike tempering treatments, is carried out at a temperature that can be applied to nearly finished parts without distortion and discoloration.
Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching. At this point, the structure remains austenitic. Yield stress levels above MPa are then reached.
Aging forms Ni 3 Ti precipitates and increases the yield strength to about MPa at room temperature. As a result, A is classified as an Fe-based superalloy , used in jet engines, gas turbines, and turbo parts. There are over grades of stainless steel, of which 15 are most commonly used. Unlike carbon steel, stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to a combination of air and moisture.
The resulting iron oxide surface layer is porous and fragile. In addition, as iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel, this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away, exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation , spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in the air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.
This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. The resistance of this film to corrosion depends upon the chemical composition of the stainless steel, chiefly the chromium content.
It is customary to distinguish between four forms of corrosion: uniform, localized pitting , galvanic, and SCC stress corrosion cracking. Any of these forms of corrosion can occur when the grade of stainless steel is not suited for the working environment.
The designation "CRES" refers to corrosion-resistant steel. Most, but not all, mentions of CRES refer to stainless steel—non-stainless steel materials can also be corrosion-resistant. Uniform corrosion takes place in very aggressive environments, typically where chemicals are produced or heavily used, such as in the pulp and paper industries. Corrosion tables provide guidelines.
This is typically the case when stainless steels are exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of acid or base and the solution temperature.
Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easily-performed laboratory corrosion testing. Acidic solutions can be put into two general categories: reducing acids, such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid , and oxidizing acids , such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum content provides increased resistance to reducing acids while increasing chromium and silicon content provides increased resistance to oxidizing acids.
Sulfuric acid is one of the most-produced industrial chemicals. Thus Type SS is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type L and Alloy 20 are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature. Hydrochloric acid damages any kind of stainless steel and should be avoided. All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentrations and elevated temperatures, attack will occur, and higher-alloy stainless steels are required.
In general, organic acids are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. As the molecular weight of organic acids increases, their corrosivity decreases. Formic acid has the lowest molecular weight and is a weak acid. Type can be used with formic acid, though it tends to discolor the solution. Type is commonly used for storing and handling acetic acid , a commercially important organic acid.
Type and Type stainless steels are unaffected by weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide , even in high concentrations and at high temperatures.
The same grades exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking. All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines , though in the latter case Type is preferable to Type ; cellulose acetate damages Type unless the temperature is kept low. Type L is required for the processing of urea. Localized corrosion can occur in several ways, e.
These localized attacks are most common in the presence of chloride ions. Higher chloride levels require more highly-alloyed stainless steels.
Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many factors, including:. Pitting corrosion is considered the most common form of localized corrosion. The corrosion resistance of stainless steels to pitting corrosion is often expressed by the PREN , obtained through the formula:. The higher the PREN, the higher the pitting corrosion resistance.
Thus, increasing chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen contents provide better resistance to pitting corrosion. Though the PREN of a certain steel may be theoretically sufficient to resist pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion can still occur when poor design has created confined areas overlapping plates, washer-plate interfaces, etc. In these select areas, the PREN may not high enough for the service conditions.
Good design and fabrication techniques combined with correct alloy selection can prevent such corrosion. Stress corrosion cracking SCC is a sudden cracking and failure of a component without deformation. Whereas pitting usually leads to unsightly surfaces and, at worst, to perforation of the stainless sheet, failure by SCC can have severe consequences. It is therefore considered as a special form of corrosion.
As SCC requires several conditions to be met, it can be counteracted with relatively easy measures, including:. Galvanic corrosion [65] also called "dissimilar-metal corrosion" refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte.
The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from freshwater to seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would alone, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone.
Stainless steel, due to having a more positive electrode potential than for example carbon steel and aluminium, becomes the cathode, accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal.
An example is the corrosion of aluminium rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in contact with water. The relative surface areas of the anode and the cathode are important in determining the rate of corrosion. In the above example, the surface area of the rivets is small compared to that of the stainless steel sheet, resulting in rapid corrosion. Providing electrical insulation between the dissimilar metals, where possible, is effective at preventing this type of corrosion.
At elevated temperatures, all metals react with hot gases. The most common high-temperature gaseous mixture is air, of which oxygen is the most reactive component. Oxidation resistance in stainless steels increases with additions of chromium, silicon, and aluminium.
Small additions of cerium and yttrium increase the adhesion of the oxide layer on the surface. The addition of chromium remains the most common method to increase high-temperature corrosion resistance in stainless steels; chromium reacts with oxygen to form a chromium oxide scale, which reduces oxygen diffusion into the material. The minimum Other gases, such as sulfur dioxide , hydrogen sulfide , carbon monoxide , chlorine , also attack stainless steel.
Resistance to other gases is dependent on the type of gas, the temperature, and the alloying content of the stainless steel. Such alloys include Kanthal , produced in the form of wire or ribbons. Like steel, stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivity than copper.
In particular, the electrical contact resistance ECR of stainless steel arises as the result of the dense protective oxide layer, and limits its functionality in applications as electrical connectors. Nevertheless stainless steel connectors are employed in situations where ECR poses a lower design criteria and corrosion resistance is required, for example in high temperatures and oxidizing environments.
Martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic. Ferritic steel consists of ferrite crystals, a form of iron with up to 0. Due to its cubic crystalline structure, ferritic steel only absorbs a small amount of carbon, which consists of one iron in each corner and a central iron atom. The central atom is responsible for its magnetic properties. Grades with low coercitive field Hc have been developed for electrovalves used in household appliances and for injection systems in internal combustion engines.
Some applications require non-magnetic materials, such as magnetic resonance imaging. Annealed austenitic stainless steels are usually non-magnetic , though work hardening can make cold-formed austenitic stainless steels slightly magnetic.
Sometimes, if austenitic steel is bent or cut, magnetism occurs along the edge of the stainless steel because the crystal structure rearranges itself.
Galling , sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear, which can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, though other alloys that self-generate a protective oxide surface film, such as aluminium and titanium, are also susceptible.
Under high contact-force sliding, this oxide can be deformed, broken, and removed from parts of the component, exposing the bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are of the same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse.
Separation of the two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal components or fasteners. Galling can be mitigated by the use of dissimilar materials bronze against stainless steel or using different stainless steels martensitic against austenitic. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Nitronic 60, made by selective alloying with manganese, silicon, and nitrogen, has demonstrated a reduced tendency to gall.
Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface mill scale is removed by pickling , and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.
A wide range of joining processes are available for stainless steels, though welding is by far the most common. The ease of welding largely depends on the type of stainless steel used. Austenitic stainless steels are the easiest to weld by electric arc , with weld properties similar to those of the base metal not cold-worked.
Martensitic stainless steels can also be welded by electric-arc but, as the heat-affected zone HAZ and the fusion zone FZ form martensite upon cooling, precautions must be taken to avoid cracking of the weld. Post-weld heat treatment is almost always required while preheating before welding is also necessary in some cases. Electric arc welding of Type ferritic stainless steel results in grain growth in the heat-affected zone HAZ , which leads to brittleness.
This has largely been overcome with stabilized ferritic grades, where niobium, titanium, and zirconium form precipitates that prevent grain growth. Otherwise, the precipitation of unwanted intermetallic phases occurs, which reduces the toughness of the welds.
Stainless steel may be bonded with adhesives such as silicone, silyl modified polymers , and epoxies. A mill drill also typically raises and lowers the entire head, including motor, often on a dovetailed sometimes round with rack and pinion vertical column.
A mill drill also has a large quill that is generally locked during milling operations and released to facilitate drilling functions. Other differences that separate a mill-drill from a drill press may be a fine tuning adjustment for the Z-axis, a more precise depth stop, the capability to lock the X, Y or Z axis, and often a system of tilting the head or the entire vertical column and powerhead assembly to allow angled cutting-drilling.
Aside from size, the principal difference between these lighter machines and larger vertical mills is that the X-Y table is at a fixed elevation; the Z-axis is controlled by moving the head or quill down toward the X,Y table.
A mill drill typically has an internal taper fitting in the quill to take a collet chuck, face mills, or a Jacobs chuck similar to the vertical mill. A horizontal mill has the same sort but the cutters are mounted on a horizontal spindle see Arbor milling across the table.
Many horizontal mills also feature a built-in rotary table that allows milling at various angles; this feature is called a universal table. While endmills and the other types of tools available to a vertical mill may be used in a horizontal mill, their real advantage lies in arbor-mounted cutters, called side and face mills, which have a cross section rather like a circular saw, but are generally wider and smaller in diameter.
Because the cutters have good support from the arbor and have a larger cross-sectional area than an end mill, quite heavy cuts can be taken enabling rapid material removal rates. These are used to mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat surfaces.
Several cutters may be ganged together on the arbor to mill a complex shape of slots and planes. Special cutters can also cut grooves, bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired. These specialty cutters tend to be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and duplex mills have two. It is also easier to cut gears on a horizontal mill. Some horizontal milling machines are equipped with a power-take-off provision on the table.
This allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the milling of spiral features such as hypoid gears. Is a milling machine with the facility to either have a horizontal spindle or a vertical spindle. The latter sometimes being on a two-axis turret enabling the spindle to be pointed in any direction on desires. The two options may be driven independently or from one motor through gearing.
In either case, as the work is generally placed in the same place for either type of operation, the mechanism for the method not being used is moved out of the way.
In smaller machines, 'spares' may be lifted off while larger machines offer a system to retract those parts not in use. The choice between vertical and horizontal spindle orientation in milling machine design usually hinges on the shape and size of a workpiece and the number of sides of the workpiece that require machining.
Work in which the spindle's axial movement is normal to one plane, with an endmill as the cutter, lends itself to a vertical mill, where the operator can stand before the machine and have easy access to the cutting action by looking down upon it. Thus vertical mills are most favored for diesinking work machining a mould into a block of metal. Prior to numerical control , horizontal milling machines evolved first, because they evolved by putting milling tables under lathe-like headstocks.
Vertical mills appeared in subsequent decades, and accessories in the form of add-on heads to change horizontal mills to vertical mills and later vice versa have been commonly used. Even in the CNC era, a heavy workpiece needing machining on multiple sides lends itself to a horizontal machining center, while diesinking lends itself to a vertical one.
A milling machine is often called a mill by machinists. The archaic term miller was commonly used in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the s there has developed an overlap of usage between the terms milling machine and machining center.
The distinction, when one is made, is that a machining center is a mill with features that pre- CNC mills never had, especially an automatic tool changer ATC that includes a tool magazine carousel , and sometimes an automatic pallet changer APC. In typical usage, all machining centers are mills, but not all mills are machining centers; only mills with ATCs are machining centers.
Most CNC milling machines also called machining centers are computer controlled vertical mills with the ability to move the spindle vertically along the Z-axis. This extra degree of freedom permits their use in diesinking, engraving applications, and 2. When combined with the use of conical tools or a ball nose cutter , it also significantly improves milling precision without impacting speed, providing a cost-efficient alternative to most flat-surface hand- engraving work.
CNC machines can exist in virtually any of the forms of manual machinery, like horizontal mills. The most advanced CNC milling-machines, the multiaxis machine , add two more axes in addition to the three normal axes XYZ.
Horizontal milling machines also have a C or Q axis, allowing the horizontally mounted workpiece to be rotated, essentially allowing asymmetric and eccentric turning. The fifth axis B axis controls the tilt of the tool itself. When all of these axes are used in conjunction with each other, extremely complicated geometries, even organic geometries such as a human head can be made with relative ease with these machines.
But the skill to program such geometries is beyond that of most operators. Therefore, 5-axis milling machines are practically always programmed with CAM. The operating system of such machines is a closed loop system and functions on feedback. A set of instructions called a program is used to guide the machine for desired operations.
Some very commonly used codes, which are used in the program are:. Various other codes are also used. A CNC machine is operated by a single operator called a programmer. This machine is capable of performing various operations automatically and economically. The accessories and cutting tools used on machine tools including milling machines are referred to in aggregate by the mass noun "tooling".
There is a high degree of standardization of the tooling used with CNC milling machines, and a lesser degree with manual milling machines. To ease up the organization of the tooling in CNC production many companies use a tool management solution. Milling cutters for specific applications are held in various tooling configurations. CAT tooling was invented by Caterpillar Inc. This gives BT tooling greater stability and balance at high speeds.
One other subtle difference between these two toolholders is the thread used to hold the pull stud. Note that this affects the pull stud only; it does not affect the tool that they can hold. Both types of tooling are sold to accept both Imperial and metric sized tools.
The holding mechanism for HSK tooling is placed within the hollow body of the tool and, as spindle speed increases, it expands, gripping the tool more tightly with increasing spindle speed. There is no pull stud with this type of tooling.
For manual milling machines, there is less standardization, because a greater plurality of formerly competing standards exist. Newer and larger manual machines usually use NMTB tooling. This tooling is somewhat similar to CAT tooling but requires a drawbar within the milling machine. Furthermore, there are a number of variations with NMTB tooling that make interchangeability troublesome.
The older a machine, the greater the plurality of standards that may apply e. However, two standards that have seen especially wide usage are the Morse 2 and the R8, whose prevalence was driven by the popularity of the mills built by Bridgeport Machines of Bridgeport, Connecticut.
These mills so dominated the market for such a long time that "Bridgeport" is virtually synonymous with "manual milling machine". Most of the machines that Bridgeport made between and used a Morse taper 2, and from about onward most used an R8 taper.
Pocket milling has been regarded as one of the most widely used operations in machining. It is extensively used in aerospace and shipyard industries. In pocket milling the material inside an arbitrarily closed boundary on a flat surface of a work piece is removed to a fixed depth.
Generally flat bottom end mills are used for pocket milling. Firstly roughing operation is done to remove the bulk of material and then the pocket is finished by a finish end mill. Since the importance of pocket milling is very relevant, therefore effective pocketing approaches can result in reduction in machining time and cost.
In this approach, the tool movement is unidirectional. Zig-zag and zig tool paths are the examples of linear tool path. In zig-zag milling, material is removed both in forward and backward paths. In this case, cutting is done both with and against the rotation of the spindle. This reduces the machining time but increases machine chatter and tool wear. In zig milling, the tool moves only in one direction.
The tool has to be lifted and retracted after each cut, due to which machining time increases. However, in case of zig milling surface quality is better. In this approach, tool movement is multi-directional. One example of non-linear tool path is contour-parallel tool path. In this approach, the required pocket boundary is used to derive the tool path. In this case the cutter is always in contact with the work material.
Hence the idle time spent in positioning and retracting the tool is avoided. For large-scale material removal, contour-parallel tool path is widely used because it can be consistently used with up-cut or down-cut method during the entire process. There are three different approaches that fall into the category of contour-parallel tool path generation. They are:. In this approach, the tool travels along a gradually evolving spiral path.
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